1.2 Looking Through the Eyes of... What do you see?

Lesson Objectives:

* What are the four domains of human development?
* What are the theoretical perspectives on human development?


What are the four domains of human development?

Biological processes involve changes in the individual’s physical nature. Genes inherited from parents, the development of the brain, height, weight, changes in motor skills, the hormonal changes of puberty, and cardiovascular decline all reflect the role of biological processes in development (Santrock, 1999, p. 16).

Cognitive processes involve changes in the individual’s thought, intelligence and language. Watching a colourful mobile swinging above the crib, memorizing a poem, imagining what it would be like to be a movie star, and solving a crossword puzzle all reflect the role of cognitive processes in development (Santrock, 1999, p. 16).

Socioemotional processes involve changes in the individual’s relationships with other people, changes in emotions, and changes in personality. An infant’s smile in response to her mother’s touch, a young boy’s aggressive attack on a playmate, a girl’s development of assertiveness, an adolescent’s joy at the senior prom, and the affection of an elderly couple all reflect the role of socioemotional processes in development (Santrock, 1999, p. 17).

By spirituality we mean the experiences that appeal to the human spirit and our connection to God or some spiritual power outside ourselves. Through this spiritual dimension, we try to supply meaning to our lives. We also try to understand the profound sense of awe and mystery at the core of our Beings. It is also our spiritual nature that fuels our drive to express ourselves in painting, music, drama, poetry, architecture, sculpture and other art forms (Badley, 1996, p. 142).

What are the theoretical perspectives on human development?

Lifespan development has produced a number of broad conceptual perspectives representing different approaches to development. Each broad perspective encompasses a number of theories, explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest. A theory provides a framework for understanding the relationships among an organized set of principles or facts. The six major theoretical perspectives include:

* Psychodynamic Perspective: Focusing on the inner person. Rooted in Freud’s theory, the psychodynamic approach maintains that all behaviour and mental processes reflect the constant and mostly unconscious psychological struggles that rage silently within each person. Usually, these struggles involve conflict between the impulse to satisfy instincts or wishes and the need to play by the rules in society. Anxiety, depression and other disorders are outward signs of this inner turmoil (Bernstein and Nash, 1999, p. 11).


* The Behavioural Perspective: Considering the outer person. As founded by John Watson, the behavioural approach views behaviour and mental processes as primarily the result of learning. Psychologists who take this approach see rewards and punishment acting on the raw materials provided by genes, evolution and biology to shape each individual. So, whether considering a person’s aggression or drug abuse, behaviourists would look at that person’s learning history. Since people learn problem behaviours, they can also learn to change or even prevent them by unlearning old habits and developing new ones (Bernstein and Nash, 1999, p. 11).


* The Cognitive Perspective: Examining the roots of understanding. The cognitive perspective focuses on how people take in, mentally represent and store information. Cognitive psychologists then relate perception and information processing to patterns of behaviour. They study such areas as decision-making, problem-solving, interpersonal attraction and intelligence. Aggression, for instance, might be viewed as a result of poor problem solving (Bernstein and Nash, 1999, p. 11).

* The Humanistic Perspective: Concentrating on the unique qualities of human beings. According to the humanistic approach, our capacity to choose how to think and act determines our behaviour. Each person’s unique perceptions – not instincts, cognitive processes, or rewards and punishments – dictate the choices made. Humanistic psychologists believe that people are essentially good, that they are in control of themselves, and that they seek to grow toward their highest potential (Bernstein and Nash, 1999, p. 12).


* The Evolutionary Perspective: Focusing on biology as the determinant of development. Darwin’s ideas on evolution and adaptation of species laid the foundation for the evolutionary approach. The evolutionary approach to psychology holds that the behaviour of animals and humans today is the result of evolution through natural selection. Psychologists who follow this approach are concerned with the adaptive value of behaviour, the anatomy and biology that make it possible and the environmental conditions that encourage or discourage it (Bernstein and Nash, 1999, p. 11).


* The Sociocultural Perspective: Emphasizing the systems of support. Calling attention to the external influences on human behaviour such as the physical surroundings and social interactions that provide incentives, opportunities and pathways for growth, Urie Bronfenbrenner (1979) began to emphasize the ecological apporach to the study of human development. In Bronfenbrenner’s application of this concept, human ecosystems include both the physical environment (the climate, the space per person, that arrangement of the dwelling) and the social environment (the people, the culture, the economy) (Berger, 2000, p. 4).